Technology9

Category: Networking

  • Web socket connection

    WebSocket is a communication protocol that enables full-duplex, low-latency, and persistent communication between a client and a server over a single TCP connection. Unlike traditional HTTP, WebSocket provides a continuous connection where data can flow in both directions without the need for repeated handshakes, making it ideal for real-time applications such as chat applications, live…

  • Outgoing packet

    An outgoing packet refers to a unit of data transmitted from a source device to a destination device over a network. Packets are the fundamental building blocks of data communication in network systems, ensuring efficient, reliable, and structured data transfer. When a device sends data, the information is broken into smaller chunks or packets, which…

  • Incoming Packets

    An outgoing packet is a discrete unit of data sent from a source device to a destination device over a network. It forms the core of digital communication, facilitating the transfer of information between servers, clients, and devices. Packets are critical in ensuring structured, efficient, and reliable data transmission. Anatomy of an Outgoing Packet An…

  • Port Scanners

    Port scanners are a crucial component in networking and cybersecurity, allowing professionals to analyze and monitor the communication endpoints of devices within a network. By probing these endpoints, known as ports, port scanners determine which are open, closed, or filtered. This analysis aids in identifying vulnerabilities, ensuring compliance, and fortifying systems against cyber threats. How…

  • Protocol Analyzers

    Protocol analyzers, also known as packet analyzers or network analyzers, are indispensable tools in modern networking. These devices or software programs capture, dissect, and analyze network traffic in real time, providing valuable insights into the protocols, packet structures, and data flows across a network. Protocol analyzers are widely used in cybersecurity, troubleshooting, and network optimization.…

  • Iptables

    Iptables is a powerful command-line utility used to configure and manage the Linux kernel’s built-in netfilter firewall. It provides granular control over incoming, outgoing, and forwarded network traffic, making it a vital tool for system administrators to secure Linux-based systems. Iptables works by defining rules within chains, which are part of tables that specify how…

  • Nmap

    Nmap, short for Network Mapper, is a powerful open-source tool used for network discovery and security auditing. Developed by Gordon Lyon (also known as “Fyodor”), it has become an essential utility for network administrators, penetration testers, and cybersecurity professionals. Nmap’s capability to scan networks, identify active devices, and enumerate open ports makes it a cornerstone…

  • Packet Sniffers

    A packet sniffer, also known as a network analyzer or protocol analyzer, is a tool used to monitor, capture, and analyze data packets transmitted across a network. By intercepting network traffic, packet sniffers provide a detailed view of network activity, making them invaluable for troubleshooting, security analysis, and network optimization. How Packet Sniffers Work Packet…

  • IP stack : Public IP

    A public IP address is a unique identifier assigned to a device or network that is accessible over the internet. It plays a pivotal role in the IP stack by enabling global communication between devices on different networks. Public IPs are routable across the internet, making them essential for web servers, cloud resources, and other…

  • IP Stack : Private IP

    Private IP addresses are an essential component of the Internet Protocol (IP) stack, enabling secure and efficient communication within local networks. These addresses are reserved for internal use in private networks, such as homes, offices, and data centers, and are not routable over the public internet. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has designated specific…

  • Topologies: Ring Network

    In networking, the ring topology represents a structure where nodes are connected in a closed-loop or circular arrangement. Each node is connected to exactly two neighboring nodes, forming a ring-like structure. Data travels in one or both directions around the ring until it reaches its intended destination. This topology is particularly known for its simplicity…

  • IP stack : CIDR

    Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a modern addressing scheme used in the Internet Protocol (IP) stack to optimize the allocation of IP addresses and improve routing efficiency. Introduced in 1993, CIDR replaced the traditional class-based addressing system (Class A, B, C, etc.) by allowing for more flexible and efficient use of IP address space. It…

  • IP Stack : Loopback

    The loopback interface is a fundamental component of the IP stack, enabling internal network communications within a device. It provides a mechanism for testing and debugging network services without requiring physical network hardware. The loopback interface is identified by the IP address 127.0.0.1 for IPv4 and ::1 for IPv6, both of which are reserved specifically…

  • IP stack : Subnet mask

    A subnet mask is an essential component of the IP stack used to divide an IP address into two parts: one for the network and one for the host. This concept is fundamental in network design, as it allows network administrators to manage and segment networks efficiently. The subnet mask enables devices on the same…

  • IP stack : Localhost

    The IP stack, also known as the Internet Protocol Suite, is the fundamental architecture that governs how data is transmitted across networks. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, Internet Layer, Transport Layer, and Application Layer. Within the context of IP stack communication, “localhost” refers to the standard hostname for the local computer or…

  • IP stack : IP4 vs IP6

    The Internet Protocol (IP) stack is the foundation of modern networking, enabling communication between devices across interconnected networks. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) and IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) are the two primary versions of IP, each with distinct characteristics and use cases. While IPv4 has been the backbone of the internet since the 1980s,…

  • Topologies : Bus Network

    Bus topology is one of the simplest forms of network architecture, where all devices (nodes) are connected to a single central communication line known as the “bus” or backbone. This linear structure is often used in smaller networks due to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness. Data travels along the bus, and each node checks whether the…

  • Topologies: Mesh Network

    Mesh network topology is a robust and decentralized network design where each device (or node) is interconnected with one or more other nodes. This architecture ensures multiple paths for data transmission, promoting reliability, redundancy, and efficiency. Mesh networks are commonly used in critical systems such as wireless networks, IoT applications, and military communications due to…

  • Topologies : Star Network

    Star network topology is one of the most commonly used architectures in modern networking. In this design, all devices (nodes) are connected to a central hub or switch, which acts as the primary point for communication. This centralized structure simplifies management, improves performance, and ensures efficient data routing, making star topology ideal for both small-scale…

  • IP Datagram Access via CMD Commands

    An IP Datagram is a basic unit of data that is transmitted across an IP network. At the core of the Internet Protocol (IP), datagrams are used to carry payloads (the actual data being transferred) from the source to the destination in a network. Unlike higher-level protocols like TCP or UDP, IP operates at the…

  • TLS 1.3 (Transport Layer Security)

    TLS 1.3 (Transport Layer Security): An In-Depth Analysis Transport Layer Security (TLS) is a cryptographic protocol designed to provide secure communication over a computer network. TLS 1.3 is the latest version of the protocol, significantly improving both security and performance compared to its predecessors. It was officially published by the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)…

  • Object Store : Deep Dive

    An object store is a modern storage paradigm designed for managing unstructured data at scale. Unlike traditional file systems or relational databases, object storage organizes data as discrete objects within a flat hierarchy, making it ideal for cloud-native applications, big data analytics, and backup solutions. This article provides an advanced, in-depth exploration of object storage,…

  • UDP Datagram access via CMD commands

    UDP Datagram Access via CMD Commands User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless protocol that operates at the transport layer of the OSI model, unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented and ensures reliable data transmission. UDP is designed for low-latency applications where speed is critical, such as video streaming, online gaming, and VoIP (Voice over IP).…

  • PAN : Features & Use cases

    A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a highly localized network designed to interconnect devices within a limited range, typically a few meters around an individual. PANs rely on technologies like Bluetooth, Zigbee, NFC, and USB, enabling seamless communication between devices such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearable technology. With advancements in IoT, PANs have become…

  • BAN : Features & Use Cases

    A Body Area Network (BAN) is an advanced wireless communication network designed to interconnect wearable or implantable devices within and around the human body. BANs are pivotal in healthcare, fitness, and human-computer interaction, offering real-time monitoring, data transmission, and control. Their architecture blends cutting-edge sensor technologies, communication protocols, and data analytics, making them integral to…

  • MAN : Features & Use Cases

    A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a sophisticated telecommunications infrastructure designed to interconnect local area networks (LANs) across a metropolitan region. MANs bridge the gap between LANs and wide area networks (WANs), offering a highly scalable and efficient medium for data exchange. They utilize technologies like fiber optics, microwave, and high-speed Ethernet to ensure robust…

  • HTTP Web Storage: LocalStorage and SessionStorage

    Web storage is a critical component of modern web development, offering mechanisms for client-side data storage. It enhances user experience by enabling persistent or session-based data storage directly in the browser, without involving server-side interaction. Web storage includes LocalStorage and SessionStorage, each designed for specific use cases. 1. Overview of Web Storage Web storage leverages…

  • TCP / IP Model

    The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the backbone of internet and network communication. It outlines how data is transferred between devices over a network in a four-layered structure: 1. Link Layer (Network Access Layer): This layer includes protocols that deal with the physical aspects of data transfer, including Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and hardware addressing.…

  • IMAP (E-mailing Protocol Stack)SMTP (E-mailing Protocol Stack)

    IMAP, short for Internet Message Access Protocol, is a highly utilized protocol in email systems that allows users to access their email on remote mail servers. Unlike POP (Post Office Protocol), which downloads emails to a local client, IMAP offers a more sophisticated approach by enabling users to view, organize, and manipulate emails directly on…

  • Edge Computing

    Edge servers are strategically positioned nodes in a network architecture designed to bring data processing closer to end users, reducing latency and improving performance. These servers act as intermediaries between the user’s device and the core server infrastructure, often located on the edge of the network (hence the name). Edge computing optimizes the overall performance…

  • NTP (Network Time Protocol)

    The Network Time Protocol (NTP) is a networking protocol used to synchronize clocks across distributed systems with high precision, ensuring consistency in transaction timestamps, logs, and operations across networked devices. Developed in the 1980s, NTP uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) as a reference and relies on a hierarchical structure of servers arranged in strata. Overview…

  • SSH (Secure Shell Connection)

    Secure Shell (SSH) is a cryptographic protocol enabling secure remote access and management of networked systems over unsecured networks. Operating on the application layer, SSH relies on public-key cryptography to establish an encrypted tunnel between the client and server, ensuring data confidentiality and integrity during the session. Key Components of SSH 1. Authentication: SSH supports…

  • DNAT (Destination Network Address Translation)

    Destination Network Address Translation (DNAT) is a network protocol technique within NAT, designed to remap destination IP addresses on packets as they traverse routers or firewalls. Primarily used to expose private network services to the internet, DNAT modifies the packet’s destination address so that external clients can interact with an internal server through a public…

  • cURL (Client URL)

    cURL (Client URL) is an open-source command-line tool and library used for transferring data across various protocols, such as HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, and more. Common in data retrieval and automation, cURL provides a streamlined way to interact with URLs, primarily for network communication in software development. With its versatility and robustness, cURL supports multiple options…

  • Big – O – Notation (time & space complexity)

    The Big-O notation is a mathematical concept used in computer science to describe the efficiency of an algorithm based on its time or space complexity as the input size grows. It provides a way to measure the upper limit of an algorithm’s performance, helping developers estimate scalability and potential bottlenecks. Key Concepts of Big-O Notation…

  • Cloud Deployment Models

    In the context of Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), cloud deployment models serve as frameworks for how applications and services are hosted in the cloud. These models align with project requirements, team needs, and security considerations. Here are the main deployment models relevant to SDLC: 1. Public Cloud Characteristics: A multi-tenant environment where resources are…

  • ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

    The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a crucial network protocol used to map IP addresses to physical MAC (Media Access Control) addresses within a local network. Operating within the Network Layer and the Link Layer of the OSI model, ARP ensures that devices on a network can communicate accurately by associating a device’s IP address,…

  • SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

    The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a core protocol in the application layer of the TCP/IP suite, facilitating the transmission of email messages between servers. Working over a reliable, connection-oriented architecture (typically TCP), SMTP orchestrates the structured relay of messages from one server (Mail Transfer Agent, or MTA) to another, ensuring dependable message delivery.…

  • SNAT (Source Network Address Translation)

    Source Network Address Translation (SNAT) is a type of NAT that enables internal devices to communicate with external networks by translating private, non-routable IP addresses to a public IP address, typically at the gateway or firewall. SNAT is used for outbound connections where internal IPs are masked behind a single public IP, which is crucial…

  • Port Address Translation (PAT)

    Port Address Translation (PAT), also known as Network Address Port Translation (NAPT), is a variant of Network Address Translation (NAT) that enables multiple devices to share a single public IP address, leveraging port numbers to differentiate between sessions. PAT Fundamentals PAT operates by modifying IP packet headers, substituting private IP addresses with a public IP…

  • Network Address Translation (NAT)

    Network Address Translation (NAT) is a pivotal mechanism enabling multiple devices to share a single public IP address, thereby conserving IPv4 address space. This article delves into NAT’s intricacies, exploring its types, operational modes, and implications on network security and performance. NAT Fundamentals NAT operates by modifying IP packet headers, substituting private IP addresses with…

  • SSL Bridging

    SSL bridging is a sophisticated process in network security where SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) encryption is terminated at an intermediary, typically a load balancer, which decrypts and re-encrypts traffic before forwarding it to backend servers. Unlike SSL offloading, SSL bridging allows for secure, end-to-end encrypted communication across the network, enhancing data security while offering flexibility…

  • SSL Offloading

    SSL offloading is a technique used to transfer the computational workload of SSL/TLS encryption and decryption from a web server to a dedicated device, such as a load balancer or hardware security module (HSM). This helps optimize server performance by allowing it to handle more client requests without the overhead of SSL processing, especially in…

  • SSL (Secure Socket Layer)

    Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a cryptographic protocol designed to secure communication over computer networks, especially the internet. SSL provides data encryption, server authentication, and message integrity, all essential for protecting sensitive information during transmission. Although SSL has largely been replaced by Transport Layer Security (TLS) in modern systems, the two terms are often used…

  • Web Analytics : Vital Web KPIs

    Web analytics encompass various tools and methods to analyze how users interact with websites. These metrics provide software engineers and PhD students insights into user behavior, website effectiveness, and areas for optimization. Key web analytics areas are divided into traffic, behavior, and conversion analytics, with each yielding specific, actionable data. 1. Traffic Analytics Traffic analytics…

  • Web Vitals : Vital KPIs

    Web Vitals are a set of performance metrics from Google that measure user experience on the web, focusing on loading speed, interactivity, and visual stability. For software engineers and PhD students, these metrics provide a technical lens on performance that impacts user engagement, search ranking, and overall website effectiveness. Core Web Vitals Overview 1. Largest…

  • Bounce Rate:  User Engagement Metrics

    Bounce Rate is a key metric in web analytics that represents the percentage of users who visit a website or application and leave after viewing only one page or performing minimal interactions. This measurement reflects user engagement and can be a critical factor in understanding how effective the content or design is in retaining users.…

  • DTR : Data Transfer Rate

    Data Transfer Rate (DTR) measures the speed at which data moves between devices or components, typically measured in bits per second (bps). It reflects the efficiency and capacity of communication systems, from network connections to hard drives, making it critical in software and systems engineering where data flow performance is key. Higher transfer rates enable…

  • Bandwidth Utilisation

    In computing and telecommunications, bandwidth refers to the maximum data transfer rate of a network or Internet connection. Specifically, it is the amount of data that can be transmitted from one point to another within a specified time, typically measured in bits per second (bps). Bandwidth is critical for software engineers when designing and optimizing…

  • TLS 2.0: Transport Layer Security

    As secure communication remains a priority for developers and organizations, TLS (Transport Layer Security) has long been a cornerstone of internet security protocols. Although TLS 1.3 is the latest official version, the concept of a hypothetical “TLS 2.0” raises intriguing questions for software engineers. What should the next generation of TLS entail to address today’s…

  • HTTP/2 vs HTTP/3: Web Protocol Evolution

    The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) has undergone significant transformations since its inception, with HTTP/2 and HTTP/3 representing major milestones in its evolution. These successive iterations have substantially enhanced web performance, security, and reliability. HTTP/2: The Multiplexing Pioneer Introduced in 2015, HTTP/2 (RFC 7540) revolutionized web communication by introducing: HTTP/3: The QUIC-Enabled Speedster Released in 2020,…

  • IPV4

    IPV4 is the fourth version of Internet protocol which was deployed in 1981, IPV4 is a 32 bit addressing schema, IPV4 has around 4.3 Billion Addresses, IPV4 is numeric dot decimal notation based. DHCP servers are integrated with computing systems in order to lease – in / Lease out IP ADDRESSES and all is done…

  • CIRCULAR LINKED LIST

    In CIRCULAR LINKED LIST all the nodes in the linked list are connected circularly. The first and the last node are connected, the NULL is not present in the Circular linked list as the LAST NODE will be connected with the FIRST NODE.  A circular linked list is of TWO TYPES:  1) Circular single linked list: A Mix of a…